The Case for Khafre

Most archaeologists believe the Sphinx was built around 4,500 years ago during Egypt’s Old Kingdom, under the reign of King Khafre (also called Chephren). Khafre ruled from about 2558 to 2532 BCE and is credited with building the second of the three pyramids at Giza.

Why do many experts suspect the Sphinx was commissioned by Khafre? For starters, the monument is part of a complex that includes Khafre’s pyramid and temples. And a life-size statue of Khafre, carved from volcanic rock and found in an adjacent temple, bears some resemblance to the face of the Sphinx. A stone ceremonial pathway within the complex also suggests a connection, as it links the temple next to the Sphinx to a mortuary temple next to Khafre’s pyramid.

Additionally, an inscription known as the Dream Stela, placed between the Sphinx’s paws by Pharaoh Thutmose IV more than a thousand years after Khafre’s time, asks the people of Egypt to worship the “resting place or sanctuary of … Khaef,” a name that has been interpreted as Khafre. While not conclusive proof, this has strengthened the Khafre theory in the eyes of many scholars.

Could Khufu Have Been the Builder?

Yet not everyone agrees that Khafre was the mastermind behind the Sphinx. Some researchers argue that it was actually Khafre’s father, King Khufu — the builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza — who commissioned the statue.

This theory draws on geological and archaeological clues. The Sphinx was carved from a limestone outcrop that may have been quarried during Khufu’s construction projects. Also, some archaeologists suggest that Khafre’s causeway and temples appear to be designed around the already-existing Sphinx, indicating the statue predated his reign.

Stylistic comparisons fuel the Khufu hypothesis as well. The broad, square features of the Sphinx’s face don’t match well with Khafre’s statues. Instead, some experts see a closer resemblance to known images of Khufu.

Alternative Theories

Other candidates have been proposed, though with less evidence. Khafre’s brother Djedefre and son Menkaure have both been suggested as possible builders. Djedefre in particular is thought to have commissioned smaller sphinxes at his own pyramid complex.

An even more radical theory proposes that the Sphinx is much older than the Old Kingdom — perhaps dating back to 7000 BCE — based on interpretations of erosion patterns. However, this idea is largely dismissed by mainstream Egyptologists.

Some have also argued that certain features of the Sphinx’s headdress resemble those seen during the reign of Amenemhat II, about six centuries after Khafre. Yet this view remains on the fringes of academic debate.

A Statue by Any Other Name

Interestingly, the name “Sphinx” comes not from ancient Egypt, but from the ancient Greeks, who visited the site more than 2,000 years after the statue was built. They likely named it for its resemblance to their mythical sphinx — a creature with a woman’s head, a lion’s body, and an eagle’s wings.

The ancient Egyptians, by contrast, may have called the statue Horemakhet, meaning “Horus of the horizon,” linking it to the sky god Horus and reinforcing its role as a symbol of divine kingship and protection.

While the debate over who built the Sphinx continues, the monument’s grandeur and significance are undisputed. Whether the work of Khafre, Khufu, or another long-ago ruler, the Sphinx remains a powerful symbol of ancient Egypt’s ingenuity, artistry, and fascination with the afterlife. We can only hope it will endure for another 4,000 years.

• What Did Ancient People Dream About?
• What Was the Bronze Age Like?
• What a Typical Day Was Like in Ancient Egypt

Healing and Transformation

For many ancient people, especially those in the Greco-Roman world, dreams were not only forecasts but also instructions for therapy. The prominent Greek physician Galen reported that he had performed surgery based on instructions received in a dream. (In fact, Galen owed his entire career to a dream his father had.)

In Roman times, the orator Aelius Aristides kept extensive dream journals detailing his interactions with the god Asclepius, the god of healing. In his first such dream, the deity directed him to walk barefoot in cold weather. Aristides also wrote of being instructed to plunge into a freezing river in winter. Despite the bitter cold, he followed the divine command and emerged feeling renewed, with a “certain inexplicable contentment” that lasted through the day and night.

The temple of Asclepius in Pergamum, where Aristides spent years undergoing dream-based treatments, was a center of “incubation” — a practice in which patients slept in the temple in hopes of receiving a healing dream, or simply being healed by the god while they slept. Aristides believed his ailments were not only healed through these dreams, but that the dreams themselves revealed a deeper layer of his identity.

Symbol and Allegory

Not all dreams in the ancient world were seen as straightforward. Some were symbolic puzzles requiring interpretation. The second-century dream theorist Artemidorus, in his book Oneirocritica (or The Interpretation of Dreams), distinguished between direct (“theorematic”) and allegorical dreams. The former might show you exactly what was coming (for instance, dreaming of a shipwreck and waking up to discover it coming true), but the latter cloaked meaning in metaphor.

In symbolic dreams, one thing signified another — an eagle could mean a king; a journey, an impending change; a flood, internal unrest. Interestingly, interpretation relied not on fixed meanings but on context, such as who the dreamer was as well as their emotional state, social status, health, and personal concerns.

Dreams and Literature

Dreams also fed ancient literature and drama. The playwright Aristarchus of Tegea reportedly wrote a tragedy at the command of the god Asclepius, who appeared in a dream after the playwright’s recovery from illness.

Homer’s famous epics are also infused with dream logic and imagery. In the Iliad Book 2, Zeus sends a deceitful dream to Agamemnon in the form of a person urging him to attack Troy. It’s an example of dreams as political tools used by gods to shape human affairs.

The Importance of Ancient Dreams

Of course, not everyone in the ancient world took dreams so seriously. In the fourth century CE, the philosopher Diogenes the Cynic had this to say about people who got worked up about dreams: “They did not regard what they do while they are awake, but make a great fuss about what they fancy they see while they are asleep.”

Yet as with most things, Diogenes was an outlier. For many in the ancient world, dreams were seen as legitimate and often essential tools for navigating illness, ethics, and divine will. Ancient people dreamed of gods and ghosts, rivers and birds, death and healing, fear and redemption. And whether interpreted as prophecy, therapy, or metaphor, those dreams were treated with reverence and awe.

• Who Built the Great Sphinx of Giza?
• What Was the Bronze Age Like?
• What a Typical Day Was Like in Ancient Egypt

Art and Storytelling Flourished

The Bronze Age saw an explosion of creativity that, like most aspects of the era, varied by region as civilizations developed at different speeds and with their own styles and techniques. In Mesopotamia (around modern-day Iraq), sculptors carved detailed figures from stone and bronze, while in the Aegean world, particularly among the Minoans on the island of Crete (in modern-day Greece), pottery was a canvas as much as it was a vessel. Even everyday items such as frying pans were detailed with elegant nature scenes and designs. Bronze bells, meanwhile, were a staple of musical rituals in late Bronze Age China, around 1050 BCE, believed to symbolize virtue.

It was also, despite limited writing systems, a significant time for literature. The most famous work to survive from the Bronze Age — and one of the oldest surviving works of literature — is The Epic of Gilgamesh. First written on clay tablets in cuneiform in ancient Sumer around 2100 BCE, the story follows the tale of Gilgamesh, the king of the city of Uruk. The story and its themes of mortality, Mesopotamian religious beliefs, and societal values are considered foundational aspects of the heroic epic genre.

Civilizations Rose

Permanent settlements and early cities existed long before the Bronze Age, but the era saw the rise of the first organized and complex urban societies. These were densely populated, politically organized, and connected through trade, communication, and technologies such as the mastery of bronze metallurgy and irrigation systems. 

In Mesopotamia — often called the cradle of civilization — the Sumerian city-state Uruk flourished in 3500 BCE. Estimates of its population vary, but at its peak, it’s thought to have been home to between 50,000 and 80,000 people. It introduced key features of urban life: monumental temples that doubled as religious and administrative centers, a centralized government led by priests and kings, and the invention of cuneiform writing for managing trade and resources. The cities of Babylon and Nineveh later expanded these innovations, developing vast trade networks and astronomical records. The Babylonians also pioneered a comprehensive legal system with the Code of Hammurabi, established around 1750 BCE.

In South Asia, the Indus Valley Civilization (modern-day Pakistan and North India) planned cities such as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro with remarkable precision, with uniform brickwork, public baths, and complex drainage that set the standard for urban sanitation. In the Aegean, the Minoans on Crete built a 150,000-square-foot palace complex in the city of Knossos, and were pioneers of maritime trade and early syllabic writing systems.

Religion and Ritual Shaped Everyday Life

In the Bronze Age, religion was often observed at temples, but it certainly wasn’t confined to them. Religion and its accompanying rituals were woven throughout much of daily life, as most people believed their fates were influenced by supernatural forces. In regions such as ancient Britain, where the Bronze Age started around 2500 BCE, communities such as the Beaker people held sacrifices to the gods at stone circles. In Egypt, meanwhile, religious life centered around the afterlife: Massive tombs and ornate burial customs demonstrated a belief in a world after death. Bronze Age religious spaces were often natural sites, too: The River Thames, for instance, served as a sacred place where people left thousands of objects, believed to be offerings to its spirit.

It Collapsed Fairly Quickly

After thriving for centuries, the advanced and interconnected civilizations of the Bronze Age began a collapse sometime around 1200 BCE that took just a few decades, ending in about 1150 BCE. Cities across the eastern Mediterranean were abandoned or destroyed and trade routes crumbled. In Mycenaean Greece, palace complexes were destroyed. The Hittite Empire in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) vanished. Even Egypt, though it partially survived, was badly weakened and never regained its former power. 

Historians have pointed to a variety of potential and overlapping causes, including drought, famine, earthquakes, and invasion, but the scale and suddenness of the collapse is difficult to fully account for. Though the Bronze Age collapse was sudden in the timeline of history, its impact was long-lasting. Many regions entered a so-called “dark age,” with fewer historical records — writing systems such as the Aegeans’ Linear B vanished — and simpler societies. The shadow lingered until the Iron Age was well established in many regions by around 1000 BCE. Iron was more accessible than copper, and using it to make steel meant tools and weapons were stronger. A boost in agriculture helped population growth, fueling the rise of new states and the gradual return of urban life, trade, and culture.

• Who Built the Great Sphinx of Giza?
• What Did Ancient People Dream About?
• What a Typical Day Was Like in Ancient Egypt

Midday

By late morning, the farmer was busy in the fields. Whether plowing, sowing, or harvesting, they often sang songs or worked alongside the rest of the family, making the long hours a bit more bearable. Animals were fed, irrigation channels were checked, and grain was carefully stored for the future. The work was physically demanding, with little time for breaks, except perhaps a short midday rest and a quick snack.

Meanwhile, the pharaoh’s day was generally filled with matters of state. They met with high-ranking officials, reviewed reports from distant provinces, and made important decisions about military strategies, construction projects, or new decrees — decisions that scribes quickly recorded. The pharaoh was seen as a living god, and as such their duties were deeply connected to religion. They often visited temples or oversaw grand state ceremonies, all designed to maintain ma’at — the divine balance that kept the universe in harmony.

The scribe’s midday looked a bit different. Sitting cross-legged with a papyrus scroll on their lap, they might have copied tax records, written land deeds, or transcribed religious texts, using reed pens and ink. In addition to their writing tasks, they might have overseen operations at a grain warehouse, checked inventories, or accompanied inspectors to ensure tax compliance in the nearby villages.

Afternoon

As the afternoon sun climbed higher, the farmer pressed on with their work. They might have reinforced irrigation dikes, tended to livestock, or gathered reeds (to make baskets or mats) or papyrus (to make paper) along the Nile. The river shaped every part of their world — its annual flooding, known as inundation, could wash away homes, but it also left behind rich, fertile soil that made farming possible. During the months when fields were underwater, many farmers were called to help with state projects such as digging canals or even working on temple construction. 

The scribe’s afternoon sometimes took them away from their writing board and out into the field. They often accompanied officials to survey land, checked on tax records, and delivered documents between government offices. Scribes were responsible for various administrative tasks, including recording census data, managing tax records, and drafting legal documents. 

Scribes didn’t live in luxury, but their education offered them a level of stability and social status that few others had. Even with long hours and modest pay, the role came with opportunity — scribes could ascend the ranks of bureaucracy, with some rising to prominent positions such as vizier (a high-ranking political official) or even pharaoh, such as Horemheb in the 14th century BCE.

Meanwhile, the pharaoh’s duties extended into the afternoon with ceremonies, council meetings, or visits to key sites. Their duties included touring construction projects, presiding over temple rituals, and meeting with diplomats bearing gifts and tributes. Even when they weren’t issuing decrees or overseeing matters of state, their presence carried symbolic weight — every move reinforcing their divine role in maintaining harmony across the land.

Evening 

As evening settled over Egypt, the pace of daily life slowed. The farmer returned to their mud-brick home, tired from the day’s labor, and often sat down to a simple meal with the family — lentils, flatbread, vegetables, and, if they were fortunate, some fish or duck. The evening hours were quiet, filled with conversation, stories, and a bit of rest before the cycle began again at dawn.

The scribe’s work came with some comforts, but their schedule was still shaped by the responsibilities of recordkeeping and administration. They ended their long work day by cleaning their tools and putting away scrolls. At home in their apartment complex near the mortuary or temple, they might have dined on a dinner of vegetables, bread, meat, and beer and then spend time reading, writing, or relaxing with music and family.

Even with the privileges of royalty, the pharaoh’s day often followed a similar rhythm of tradition, ceremony, and decision-making. At the vibrantly decorated palace, the ruler’s dinner was an elaborate affair, prepared by a team of cooks and often served alongside music and entertainment. Afterward, they sometimes meet with priests or advisers, or simply wound down in private quarters for the night.

• Who Built the Great Sphinx of Giza?
• What Did Ancient People Dream About?
• What Was the Bronze Age Like?

That said, the smells reported in the study didn’t just come from the original mummification materials. The analysis also found aromatic traces coming from plant oils used for more recent conservation; synthetic pesticides (some of which smelled a lot like original mummification materials); and microbiological deterioration products such as mold. Some of the aromatic molecules even came from items such as the sarcophaguses and mummification fabric. That means these mummies might smell somewhat different today than they did when first preserved.

The techniques used to embalm Egyptian mummies changed over time, the study noted, and also varied by region and socioeconomic status. While mummification in Predynastic Egypt (around 5000 BCE) was largely a natural process accomplished by hot, dry desert sand, the Old Kingdom (roughly 2700 to 2200 BCE) saw the use of natron salts, plant resins, gums, and the removal of internal organs. Mummification quality peaked during the New Kingdom (around 1570 to 1069 BCE) and declined during the Ptolemaic and Greco-Roman periods (332 BCE to 395 CE). After the Arab conquest of Egypt in 641 CE, mummification was no longer practiced in the region. Yet it’s fair to say that while the ritual was practiced, it probably produced scents somewhat similar to those noted by the study.

The researchers didn’t just study mummy scents as a curiosity, though. They hope a more detailed understanding of the scents will help preserve the relics, by expanding our understanding of embalming methods and improving conservation techniques that could help protect the mummies from further damage.

Although the study claims to be the first to systematically study the smells of a collection of mummies, one previous study looked at the residues in 3,500-year-old canopic jars (vessels used to store mummified organs) from the tomb of an Egyptian noblewoman named Senetnay. The scientists who scraped the residues from the now-empty jars, found in 1900 by Howard Carter in the Valley of the Kings, identified traces of beeswax, plant oil, fats, bitumen, and resins from various trees, including pine and cedar.

But this time, the researchers didn’t just present their findings — they actually attempted to recreate them. The scientists who worked on the project, including German archaeologist Barbara Huber, worked with French perfumer Carole Calvez and “sensory museologist” Sofia Collette Ehrich to recreate the scent of the embalming materials found in the jars. Speaking about the results of their recreation, Huber told CBC radio, “The dominant aroma is definitely a woody kind of pine-like scent, but it also has a hint of bitumen, a little bit of beeswax, something sweet, and you might even be able to pick up a fresh, citrusy note of pistachio.”

The aromatic creation was dubbed “Scent of Eternity,” and while it wasn’t for sale, it became part of “an immersive, multisensory experience” at the Moesgaard Museum in Denmark in October 2023. The exhibit, “Ancient Egypt–Obsessed With Life,” used the scent to help tell the story of Egyptian beliefs about the afterlife and the mummification process. It’s part of a recent trend of incorporating scent in museum exhibits and other ways of experiencing history. After all, our ancestors used all five of their senses, and so we should, too.

• Who Built the Great Sphinx of Giza?
• What Did Ancient People Dream About?
• What Was the Bronze Age Like?